United Nations (UN) peacekeeping missions celebrated 75 years of operations in 2023. Despite their successes, UN peacekeeping missions have faced extensive criticism due to a wide range of problems, including mismanagement, lack of resources, reluctance to intervene in civilian crises, examples of human rights violations by peacekeeping forces, and financial challenges. Experts often argue that the root cause of mission failures frequently lies in expansive mandates that prove challenging to execute.[1] While these missions have achieved some tangible progress over the years, experts remain divided on how to measure success. Improvements in the status quo, fulfillment of mandates, and resolution of conflicts are among the possible benchmarks.[2]

Considering this necessity, it is incumbent on us to have an objective view of the successes and failures of previous peacekeeping missions in order to design a peacekeeping process with the highest probability of success in future applications.

The Ups and Downs of Past UN Peacekeeping Missions

The protection of civilians (PoC) has emerged as one of the most significant challenges for peacekeeping missions deployed by the United Nations. PoC was already a problem for the first generation of peacekeepers, who were only sent to monitor and physically separate parties who had already agreed to a ceasefire. But now, missions are deployed into ongoing conflict with multiple armed actors, where civilians are directly targeted (sometimes even by host governments, who at times barely tolerate the presence of the UN).

The typical definition of protection of civilians within the UN system is primarily based on preventing or responding to direct physical violence against civilians rather than a broader understanding of structural violence, or the effects of forced displacement. However, actions to enhance protection go well beyond patrolling by troops or the potential to use force; missions understand that dialogue, support for political and peace processes, and respect for human rights are also central to protecting civilians. Hence, the peacekeeping task is complex and shared by a wide variety of actors within a UN mission beyond just the peacekeeping troops.[3]

From Haiti to Mali, Kosovo to South Sudan, UN peacekeepers are invited into war-torn nations with the daunting responsibility of maintaining security and peace. This often entails a comprehensive overhaul of state and societal structures. Peacekeepers engage in a variety of activities, such as protecting civilians, training police forces, disarming militias, monitoring human rights violations, overseeing electoral processes, providing urgent humanitarian aid, reconstructing judicial systems, scrutinizing correctional facilities, and promoting gender equality. These efforts unfold within contexts marked by persistent turmoil, where resolving issues proves immensely challenging, a reality that compelled their intervention in the first place.

In illustration of the complexity of these challenges, UN peacekeeping missions have historically had mixed effects on conflict zones. The missions have helped shorten conflict episodes and extend periods of political stability following conflict.[4] But, on the other hand, detailed case studies have highlighted their many shortcomings and raised doubts about their effectiveness. While peacekeeping operations have been found to reduce casualties,[5] the UN has faced challenges in coordinating and planning missions, securing troop commitments from member states, and ensuring performance on the ground.[6]

Although peacekeeping missions have had some success in addressing conflict situations and promoting peace in many regions,[7] their ability to achieve their objectives has been limited by political, economic, and societal factors in the conflict zones. Challenges such as insecurity, downsizing, and a lack of resources have hampered the effectiveness and performance of UN peacekeeping operations. Structural and operational issues, including bureaucratic inefficiencies and slow decision-making processes, have undermined timely responses to conflicts. Insufficient funding is another challenge that has restricted the ability of peacebuilding missions to achieve their long-term goals. Politically, the UN’s reliance on host nation consent can limit its ability to operate effectively, particularly when local authorities are involved in conflicts.

Further challenges include the influence of powerful member states, who often distort peacebuilding efforts, leading to accusations of partiality and undermining the credibility of UN operations. Additionally, peacebuilding missions are criticized for prioritizing short-term stability over sustainable peace, which can lead to renewed conflict after international forces withdraw. These missions often fail to engage local communities effectively, resulting in externally perceived solutions that neglect local perspectives and needs essential for successful peacebuilding.

As such, continued efforts are needed to address the challenges and improve the effectiveness of these missions in conflict zones.[8]  

Positive effects of UN peacekeeping missions: 

Negative effects of UN peacekeeping missions:                                               

Examples of the Specific Effects of Past UN Peacekeeping Missions

Positive Effect: Protection of Civilians

One notable case study demonstrating the positive impact of UN Peacekeeping missions in safeguarding civilians is exemplified by the African Union-United Nations Hybrid Operation in Darfur (UNAMID). Established in 2007 amidst the conflict in Darfur, Sudan, UNAMID’s primary objective was to ensure the protection of civilians and facilitate humanitarian assistance.[9]

Despite challenging circumstances, UNAMID achieved some limited successes throughout its tenure. The Effectiveness of Peace Operations Network’s (EPON) final evaluation of UNAMID found that AU and UN forces “dutifully fulfilled mandated tasks”, but issues such as the lack of host government consent and weak UN Security Council political will hinder peace efforts. Specifically, UNAMID implemented some initiatives to protect civilians from violence, increase humanitarian access, and establish inclusive community peace dialogues, despite a national-level peace accord never being fully achieved.[10]

Negative Effect: Allegations of Sexual Exploitation and Abuse (SEA)

Conversely, the United Nations Multidimensional Integrated Stabilization Mission in the Central African Republic (MINUSCA) serves as a poignant example of the negative repercussions associated with UN Peacekeeping missions. MINUSCA faced grave allegations of sexual exploitation and abuse perpetrated by its peacekeeping personnel in the Central African Republic. Such instances of misconduct not only undermined the mission’s legitimacy among the local population but also eroded public trust in UN peacekeeping efforts, highlighting the urgent need for accountability mechanisms and prevention strategies.[11]

Positive Effect: Facilitating Peace Negotiations

The United Nations Mission in Liberia (UNMIL) stands as a compelling illustration of how UN Peacekeeping missions can facilitate peace negotiations and support democratic processes in post-conflict settings. UNMIL’s success in Liberia stemmed from its multifaceted approach to peacebuilding. Firstly, the mission played a pivotal role in brokering peace agreements among warring factions, laying the foundation for lasting peace by mediating negotiations and fostering reconciliation. Secondly, UNMIL oversaw the disarmament of former combatants, ensuring weapons were collected and ex-fighters reintegrated into society, thereby reducing the likelihood of renewed violence. Thirdly, the mission’s oversight of democratic elections helped to establish credible governance and facilitate peaceful transitions of power, bolstering Liberia’s political stability. Moreover, UNMIL built trust with the local population, crucial for the effective implementation of its mandate, and supported the development of Liberian institutions through training and assistance. Lastly, UNMIL’s enduring presence over more than 15 years demonstrated a long-term commitment to Liberia’s peace and development, ensuring sustainability in its efforts. These combined efforts contributed significantly to fostering stability and reconciliation in post-conflict LiberiaTop of FormBottom of Form.[12]

Negative Effect: Failure to Prevent Escalation of Violence

Examining the United Nations Protection Force in the former Yugoslavia (UNPROFOR) reveals the challenges and limitations faced by UN Peacekeeping missions in preventing the escalation of violence during complex conflicts. Despite its mandate to maintain peace and security, UNPROFOR struggled to curb widespread atrocities and ethnic violence during the Yugoslav Wars in the 1990s.

The conflict was characterized by deep-seated ethnic tensions and complex political dynamics involving multiple factions and states. UNPROFOR operated in a highly volatile and fragmented environment, where ethnic groups were frequently engaged in violent clashes. Its limited mandate, initially unclear strategy, and insufficient resources—including troop numbers, equipment, and logistical support—hampered its ability to effectively monitor and control violence across extensive territories. Political constraints stemming from disagreements among UN Security Council members and competing national interests further hindered decisive action. Moreover, peacekeepers faced significant security risks, including direct attacks and detentions by local factions, which undermined their capacity to protect civilians and enforce peace agreements effectively. These challenges underscored the inherent difficulties and limitations of UN peacekeeping in such complex and hostile environments. The failure to prevent grave human rights abuses, including the genocide in Srebrenica, underscores the inherent difficulties and constraints inherent in peacekeeping operations.[13]

Positive Effect: Promoting Rule of Law and Human Rights

The UNAMSIL mission in Sierra Leone, deployed in 1999, played a crucial role in ending the country’s nearly decade-long civil war through the implementation of the Lomé Peace Agreement. Factors contributing to the mission’s success included the commitment of warring parties to the peace process, a well-defined mandate with adequate resources for disarmament and reintegration efforts, and international backing for peace and accountability initiatives.[14]

Case Study: Prior UN Peacekeeping in Sudan and South Sudan

The case of South Sudan’s accession as a state, aided by the United Nations Mission in Sudan (UNMIS), exemplifies a large-scale peacekeeping mission that underwent significant evolution in a dynamic context. UNMIS was established following the Comprehensive Peace Agreement between the Government of Sudan and the Sudan People’s Liberation Movement/Army, and its mandate included traditional peacekeeping roles such as overseeing peace agreements, monitoring security arrangements, and supporting humanitarian assistance and human rights. With South Sudan’s subsequent independence in 2011, UNMIS transformed into UNMISS (United Nations Mission in South Sudan), expanding its mandate to include state-building efforts aimed at fostering development and enhancing the new government’s capacity for effective governance.

This shift positioned UNMISS not only as an implementer but also as a supporter of South Sudan’s independent government. While this role was initially seen as constructive, it soon presented challenges. As South Sudan descended into civil conflict in 2013, UNMISS found itself caught between its mandate to maintain peace and security, its advisory role to the government, and the imperative to provide impartial humanitarian aid. This proximity to the government compromised its neutrality in the conflict, particularly as hostilities intensified and various factions within the armed forces took opposing sides.

The mission’s inability to protect civilians impartially eroded trust among affected populations and humanitarian organizations alike. Humanitarian agencies, closely associated with UNMISS due to their operational base within its compounds, faced risks of becoming targets themselves, as evidenced by incidents such as the shooting down of UN helicopters. Moreover, the concentration of displaced civilians within UNMISS bases, while providing a semblance of protection, also drew the mission into local ethnic and communal dynamics, further challenging its impartiality.

In response to these complexities, humanitarian organizations had to navigate a delicate balance, maintaining distance from UNMISS to safeguard their neutrality while operating within its facilities to assist displaced populations. This dual challenge underscored the critical need for separation between peacekeeping operations and humanitarian activities in conflict zones like South Sudan, where proximity to conflicting parties can jeopardize the perceived impartiality essential for effective aid delivery.[15]

Overall, South Sudan’s experience underscores the crucial need for peacekeeping missions to maintain strict neutrality, particularly in contexts where governments are party to the conflict. It underscores the necessity for a clear definition between peacekeeping and humanitarian roles to uphold the integrity of both missions and ensure the effective delivery of aid to vulnerable populations amidst ongoing hostilities.

Lessons from Prior Peacekeeping Missions for Sudan

By examining the past successes and failures of UN Peacekeeping missions, policymakers can better understand the dynamics at play and formulate more effective strategies for future peacebuilding. From these past UN Peacekeeping missions, several key lessons emerge that highlight both successes and failures in achieving their mandates:

Lessons from Positive Impacts:

1. Protection of Civilians and Humanitarian Assistance: UNAMID in Darfur demonstrated that the strategic deployment of peacekeepers can effectively protect civilians from violence and displacement. This success underscores the importance of robust mandates and adequate resources for safeguarding vulnerable populations.
2. Facilitating Peace Negotiations: UNMIL’s role in Liberia exemplifies how peacekeeping missions can facilitate peace negotiations and support democratic processes post-conflict. This success emphasizes the value of mediation, political dialogue, and comprehensive peace agreements.
3. Promoting Rule of Law and Human Rights: UNAMSIL in Sierra Leone contributed significantly to ending the civil war by implementing peace agreements and supporting disarmament efforts. The mission’s success was bolstered by international support and a clear mandate for promoting accountability and human rights.

Lessons from Negative Impacts:

1. Sexual Exploitation and Abuse (SEA): MINUSCA’s experience in the Central African Republic highlights the critical issue of sexual exploitation and abuse by peacekeeping personnel. This misconduct severely undermined the mission’s credibility and underscored the urgent need for stringent accountability measures and prevention strategies.
2. Failure to Prevent Escalation of Violence: UNPROFOR’s challenges during the Yugoslav Wars, particularly in Srebrenica, reveal the limitations of peacekeeping missions in preventing widespread atrocities and ethnic violence. This failure emphasizes the complexities of intervening in deeply entrenched conflicts and the necessity for robust mandates and resources.

General Lessons:

• Mandates and Resources: Effective peacekeeping requires clear, achievable mandates supported by adequate resources, including trained personnel, logistical support, and financial backing.
• Accountability and Conduct: Upholding the highest standards of conduct is essential to maintaining the legitimacy and trust of local populations and the international community.
• Adaptability and Flexibility: Peacekeeping operations must be adaptable to evolving conflict dynamics and political landscapes, requiring continuous assessment and strategic adjustment.
• International and Local Engagement: Success often hinges on effective collaboration with local stakeholders, international partners, and regional organizations to garner support and ensure sustained peacebuilding efforts.
• Political Will and Diplomatic Engagement: Political commitment and diplomatic engagement at both national and international levels are crucial for mediating conflicts, supporting peace processes, and addressing underlying grievances.

In summary, while UN Peacekeeping missions have achieved notable successes in protecting civilians, facilitating peace negotiations, and promoting human rights, they also face significant challenges such as misconduct allegations and limitations in preventing violence escalation. Learning from both successes and failures is essential for enhancing future peacekeeping efforts and effectively addressing complex conflicts worldwide.

Lessons from African-led Peace Operations:

African-led peace operations have played a crucial role in addressing Africa’s security challenges, marked by their rapid deployment capabilities and adaptability to diverse conflict scenarios. Over the past two decades, these operations, primarily spearheaded by the African Union (AU) and regional economic communities (RECs), have undertaken varied missions across the continent, totaling 38 operations in 25 countries. Notable examples include the ECOWAS Mission in Liberia and the AU Mission in Somalia, which have demonstrated the ability to swiftly respond to crises and initiate stability measures even before larger UN interventions.

Comparing the UN’s efforts with the African-led missions, the latter offer critical lessons that can significantly inform the implementation of a future peacekeeping mission in Sudan. First and foremost, African missions have showcased an ability to deploy rapidly to conflict zones, often outpacing larger UN operations, which is crucial for managing dynamic conflict situations and preventing escalation. Moreover, these African-led missions have demonstrated doctrinal flexibility by intervening against militant groups even in the absence of formal peace agreements, allowing for a proactive approach to addressing immediate security threats. The missions have also emphasized regional ownership and coordination, leveraging the expertise and resources of organizations like the African Union and regional economic communities (e.g., ECOWAS), which enhances understanding of local dynamics and promotes effective cooperation among regional security forces.[16]

Additionally, African-led missions have shown progress in integrating military and civilian efforts in conflict management, a critical aspect for addressing the root causes of conflict and promoting sustainable peace. They have also provided normative leadership by upholding democratic norms and preventing unconstitutional power seizures, which can stabilize political environments and reinforce international norms. Finally, these missions operate cost-effectively, making efficient use of limited resources and donor funding, while prioritizing community engagement and local acceptance through culturally sensitive approaches. Incorporating these insights could significantly enhance the UN’s approach to peacekeeping in Sudan, ensuring greater operational agility, effective mandate adaptation, robust regional cooperation, integrated military-civilian efforts, and sustainable, community-supported peacebuilding initiatives.[17]

Recommendations for Successful Future Peacekeeping Missions

Based on the experience of past UN and African-led peacekeeping missions, the following recommendations can be offered to build a foundation for sustainable and successful future peacekeeping missions.

Recommendation 1: Develop clear operational concepts and foster international consensus. Without a precise definition of what the protection of civilians entails, achieving it is unlikely. While operational definitions are evolving, achieving consensus on effective protection strategies remains a critical challenge, emphasizing the need for strategic clarity in diverse contexts. A unified international approach is crucial for success. A clear mandate and shared objectives among all stakeholders, including the UN, regional organizations, and conflicting parties, will enhance coordination, avoid duplication of efforts, and strengthen the mission’s legitimacy.

Recommendation 2: Manage expectations realistically. While holding peacekeepers to high standards is crucial, it is also essential to acknowledge the limitations. Peacekeeping operations cannot address all vulnerabilities or operate without a semblance of peace. Managing expectations across various stakeholders, including local populations and global leaders, is crucial to conveying the reality of what can be achieved with current resources and support. This is especially crucial when the conflict is entrenched, with deep-seated grievances and a long history of violence. Peacekeeping missions often face unrealistic expectations from the international community and local populations. By managing expectations from the outset, a mission can avoid disillusionment and build trust, focusing on achievable goals and incremental progress.

Recommendation 3: Invest in effective leadership for peace operations. Leadership plays a pivotal role in navigating the complexities of peacekeeping missions. In complex missions, strong leadership will be essential for making critical decisions, managing diverse teams, navigating political complexities, and building trust with local communities. Effective leadership can inspire confidence in the mission and enhance its effectiveness. Furthermore, establishing accountability mechanisms for mission leaders will be critical for achieving mission-wide objectives.

Recommendation 4: Support peacekeepers with adequate resources. Peacekeepers face numerous challenges, whether those involve grappling with vast or complex terrain, ongoing violence, or dire humanitarian situations. Without sufficient resources like personnel, equipment, logistical support, and funding, any mission will not effectively protect civilians, facilitate dialogue, or contribute to stabilization. Despite budget constraints, modest investments can substantially enhance peacekeeping capabilities, with the cost-effectiveness of such investments is thus strikingly clear.

Recommendation 5: Enhance intelligence capabilities. Effective civilian protection hinges on timely and informed decision-making based on accurate threat assessments. In volatile and rapidly changing conflict contexts, accurate and timely intelligence is paramount. It enables peacekeepers to identify potential flashpoints, pre-empt violence, and deploy resources strategically. Without strong intelligence capabilities, a mission would be reactive rather than proactive, putting both civilians and peacekeepers at risk.

Recommendation 6: Foster a culture of reflection and learning. Peacekeeping is a dynamic field, and contemporary conflict situations often evolve rapidly. A culture of reflection and learning will allow the mission to adapt to changing circumstances, identify lessons learned, and continuously improve its strategies and tactics.

By analyzing and learning from both the successes and failures of past UN Peacekeeping missions, policymakers can develop more informed and effective strategies for addressing the complex challenges of establishing successful peacekeeping future missions. This requires a nuanced approach that recognizes the unique dynamics of the conflict context and leverages the lessons learned from previous peacekeeping endeavors to promote lasting peace and stability in the region.

References

[1] Felter, Claire, and Danielle Renwick, “The Role of Peacekeeping in Africa,” Council on Foreign Relations, October 5, 2021, https://www.cfr.org/backgrounder/role-peacekeeping-africa.

[2] Ibid.

[3] Dorussen, Han, and Govinda Clayton, “Political Initiatives and Peacekeeping: Assessing Multiple UN Conflict Resolution Tools,” Peace Economics, Peace Science and Public Policy 24, no. 4 (2018), https://doi.org/10.1515/peps-2018-0026.

[4] Ibid.

[5] Peter, Mateja, “Peacekeeping: Resilience of an Idea,” In United Nations Peace Operations in a Changing Global Order, Springer International Publishing, 2018, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-99106-1_2.

[6] De Hoop, Sipke, “Blauwhelmen Op Vredesoperaties, Een Mission Impossible? Van Goede Bedoelingen Naar Hybride Missies,” Groniek, University of Groningen Press, 2018, https://doi.org/10.21827/groniek.216.35506.

[7] Nordin, N. N. H., Wan Norhasniah Wan Husin, and M. Z. Salleh, “Challenges in United Nations Peacekeeping Operations,” International Journal of Social Science Research 10, no. 1 (2022), https://doi.org/10.5296/ijssr.v10i1.19141.

[8] Ibid.

[9] UNAMID, “United Nations – African Union-United Nations Hybrid Operation in Darfur,” Retrieved from UNAMID.

[10] Furlow, Rachel, “The Legacy of UNAMID and the Future of Hybrid Peacekeeping Missions,” Democracy in Africa, June 15, 2021. https://democracyinafrica.org/the-legacy-of-unamid-and-the-future-of-hybrid-peacekeeping-missions/.

[11] MINUSCA,  “United Nations Multidimensional Integrated Stabilization Mission in the Central African Republic,” Retrieved from MINUSCA.

[12] UNMIL, “United Nations Mission in Liberia,” Retrieved from UNMIL.

[13] UNPROFOR, United Nations Protection Force. Retrieved from UNPROFOR.

[14] Ibid.

[15] UNMISS, “United Nations Mission in South Sudan,” https://unmiss.unmissions.org/.

[16] Allen, Nate D. F, “African-Led Peace Operations: A Crucial Tool for Peace and Security,” Africa Center for Strategic Studies, August 9, 2023. https://africacenter.org/spotlight/african-led-peace-operations-a-crucial-tool-for-peace-and-security/.

[17] “Peacekeeping in Africa: From UN to Regional Peace Support Operations,” IISS, March 18, 2024, https://www.iiss.org/online-analysis/online-analysis/2024/03/peacekeeping-in-africa-from-un-to-regional-peace-support-operations/.