In the Arab world, where ancient civilizations once flourished and left behind a wealth of cultural treasures, the ravages of war have put this rich heritage in peril. The destruction of cultural heritage sites in war-torn countries like Iraq is not only a loss for these nations but also for humanity as a whole. These sites are more than mere remnants of the past; they are symbols of identity, history, and cultural continuity.
This paper examines the challenges of preserving cultural heritage in Iraq. In doing so, it explores the national and international efforts to protect and restore sites of historical significance in Iraq amidst past and ongoing wars. The paper also presents a set of imperatives and suggestions for the decision-makers to consider.
International Conventions and Preserving Cultural Heritage
Several conventions pursue an effort to put a definition into practice and take action to prevent cultural sites from being endangered. The loss of art pieces and significant sites in World War II called for such conventions revolving around preservation efforts and implementing international laws that protect treasures for humanity to preserve evidence of our history.
The two most important conventions that this paper will focus on are the Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict (held in The Hague, Netherlands, 1954) and the Convention Concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage (held in Paris, France, 1972). From now on, they will be named The Hague and The Paris Convention in this paper. It can be observed that the Hague Convention is focused more on protection in case of a conflict as it was initiated to prevent what happened in the recent war. The Paris Convention, however, is broader in tackling the dangers that can happen to the sites and is closely linked to the UN model.
As a post-World War II convention, the Hague Convention tries to prevent the destruction caused by the war and highlight the importance of cultural sites so that nations and the global community can recognize the cultural significance of those sites and demand respect for them on their own soil and for others. The Convention mentions regulations to be implemented in times of conflict and peace.[1] It calls for military personnel to work alongside civilian entities to ensure the safety of the sites in times of peace and during a war to make an effort to respect the sites and refrain from militarizing them. Moreover, movable relics should be protected and moved to areas far from military or industrial sites to ensure their safety away from the conflict areas, and areas of strategic importance.[2] Members are obligated to obey the rules in this convention. However, if one of the parties is not a member, they should at least respect the cultural sites.[3] The Hague Convention was not made for UNESCO directly but encourages working with them when needed. Conflicts in the 1980s and 1990s called for an expansion of the convention to include a new set of provisions that would help complement the convention in a way that fits a more modern approach. The second protocol implemented in 1999 sees the creation of a new section to further increase site protection; it pinpoints and clearly shows imposed sanctions in the case of violations, either at the individual or national level.[4] It also created a committee to oversee the second protocol and the convention as a whole.[5]
On the other hand, the Paris Convention emphasizes that the loss of a cultural site results in a “harmful impoverishment of the heritage of all nations of the world.”[6] Based on this, the convention weighs in all efforts to protect and preserve cultural and natural heritage sites. The Paris Convention thrives by complementing the Hague Convention and implementing its rules and laws within the framework of UNICEF. The convention emphasizes in several articles that sovereignty should not be violated and every action must be approved by the parties.[7] The convention states the funding methods and pinpoints any concern a member might have about the UNESCO structure and the delivery of such funds.[8]
Iraq as a Case Study
War, terror, and devastation—the factors that led to those conventions in the first place—have affected the Arab world. Tragically, war and terror have engulfed once-prosperous nations, both historically and in more recent times. One of the most important countries in terms of history and culture, Iraq is struggling to escape the whirlpool of conflict and instability. Most cultural heritage sites in the country are either in jeopardy or partially destroyed. Sites in war-torn countries suffer not only from direct bombings and shelling but also from national instability and the lack of incentive to put forth efforts to save and protect the sites. Therefore, this paper needs to describe the sites in detail and discuss the general challenges that might occur when stating the unique cases of each country and site. This paper will list the UNICEF heritage sites in Iraq, provide a brief history, and showcase its unique challenges to further highlight the difficulty of handling the sites and initiating a clear set of laws to tackle the issue.
Iraq’s Cultural Heritage Sites
The cradle of civilization, the site of the first writing in human history, and the capital of the Abbasid Dynasty is now, regrettably, a war-torn nation that has seen two modern wars and the emergence of an extremist group. The history of Iraq dates back to thousands of years with Ancient Mesopotamia and its glorious cities and development. The remnants of these glory days have been examined by historical documents and validated by the physical sites and artifacts left behind. However, these were majorly affected by contemporary factors—the Iraq War in 2003 and the actions of ISIS/Daesh. Iraq has five UNESCO cultural heritage sites and three are deemed in danger.
Hatra, an ancient city in Iraq’s Ninawa Governorate, 110 km southwest of Mosul, thrived as a Parthian religious and trading hub in the first and second centuries AD. Its well-preserved ruins provide valuable insights into Parthian urban design.[9] Despite being mentioned by 19th-century travelers, major excavations began in 1951, focusing on religious buildings within the Temenos wall, uncovering fourteen temples.[10] Since 1987, Italian archaeologists have explored the city’s urban layout and domestic structures. It was listed as a World Heritage site in 1985. Sadly, Hatra faced destruction by ISIS militants in 2015,[11] who destroyed statues and decorations. However, the site remained largely intact with minimal damage to the outer wall.[12] Since Daesh’s expulsion, tourism has revived, with the site reopening in 2022[13] and hosting a cultural festival in 2024.[14] In general, tourism serves as a mechanism for generating the funds necessary to protect these sites and can provide governments with a strong incentive to carry out restoration projects.
As per the nomination text for this cultural heritage site submitted in 2003, the city of Ashur, once the first capital of the Assyrian Empire and its religious center, is a site of immense historical and cultural importance. Situated at the intersection of rain-fed and irrigation agriculture, it was a crucial link between nomadic and settled communities. The archaeological area covers 0.7 square kilometers and includes temples, ziggurats, palaces, and other significant structures. Despite being recognized as a UNESCO World Heritage site in 2003, Ashur faces ongoing threats from conflict and environmental challenges. In May 2015, ISIS inflicted severe damage on Ashur’s Tabira Gate, destroying 70% of it, with subsequent water erosion further weakening the structure.[15] A $72,000 emergency grant in 2021 helped stabilize the gate, but it remains fragile. Adding to these challenges, the Makhoul Dam project, resurrected due to Iraq’s ongoing droughts, now threatens to submerge the ancient city and displace up to 250,000 people.[16] However, the dam’s construction proceeds without thoroughly studying its potential impact on Ashur’s heritage and the nearby population.[17]
The ancient city of Samarra (836-892) stands as a remarkable testament to the Abbasid Caliphate, a dominant Islamic empire that once spanned from Tunisia to Central Asia.[18] Unique among Islamic capitals, Samarra preserves its original urban layout, architecture, and artistic elements, including intricate mosaics and carvings. Having been abandoned relatively early, the city avoided the continuous redevelopment that altered other ancient towns, making it the best-preserved example of a large city from that era.[19] As the second capital of the Abbasid Caliphate after Baghdad, Samarra is the only surviving physical embodiment of the empire at its height, featuring two of the largest mosques with distinctive minarets and the most expansive palaces in the Islamic world.[20] Unfortunately, the site is now endangered by ongoing conflict and governmental misuse. The construction of a police barracks near the Great Mosque of Samarra has sparked significant concern.[21] UNESCO has issued warnings that this development could damage the site and contravene international conventions,[22] potentially turning it into a strategic target in times of conflict and jeopardizing its safety.
When it comes to its involvement of Iraq with UNESCO and its convention, we can observe that Iraq signed the Hague Convention the year it was developed in 1954.[23] However, the state struggles to safeguard most sites as they are privately owned, which further complicates the process. The national report of the implementation of the 1954 Hague Convention and its two protocols, which oversaw a four-year cycle from 2017-2020, includes UNESCO’s observation on the implementation process of the conventions.[24] Iraq has most of the elements checked as it complies with the convention,[25] but difficulties naturally occur from the issues stated above. Two key points from this report will be the complexity of marking such cultural heritage, as most of it is privately owned, and also the fact that Iraq is not yet a party to the second protocol.
While Iraq suffered from two modern wars and the takeover of ISIS in some locations, it is now recovering slowly to deal with the damage and return to its former glory. Therefore, the cultural heritage sites in Iraq show signs of a slow revival. However, some cases are handled by a not-up-to-par administration.
National Preservation Efforts
The current Iraqi government has launched several initiatives, as previously mentioned, and is making an effort to preserve cultural heritage sites. Most notable is the effort to revive tourism so that people can explore the sites and hold festivals in some sites to restore their splendor while also building a sustainable income stream to further fix and preserve the precious sites. Also, working with UNESCO within the Hague Convention and complying with its rules enhances the chances of the preservation of the sites.
International Efforts:
a) UNESCO
Without a doubt, UNESCO is the biggest player in preserving cultural heritage sites in Iraq. Nearly every effort mentioned in this paper is either initiated or is working with UNESCO. Therefore, we can observe many cases in Iraq that oversaw the implementation of the fund gathered by the UN to help repair and protect the sites in Iraq. UNESCO conducts conferences and meetings to work with other international partners and find ways to restore the sites in Iraq with Iraqi officials and other UN entities. In 2017, for example, a conference on safeguarding cultural heritage sites in liberated areas of Iraq was held at the UNESCO headquarters that brought together Iraqi officials and 80 heritage experts. They evaluated the damage and found ways to help the Iraqi government in this “long cultural rehabilitation process.”[26]
b) Initiatives Outside UNESCO
Although UNESCO’s efforts seem comprehensive and large enough to tackle most issues pertaining to the preservation of cultural heritage sites, it is the ongoing endeavor that will benefit from any assistance provided. Therefore, several Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs) have taken the initiative to aid, pouring into this noble cause.
The American Society of Overseas Research (ASOR) is a non-profit organization that sources funds from different institutions and independent donors to document, protect, and preserve cultural heritage sites specifically in war-torn countries.[27] They currently have 138 projects, 15 of which are in Iraq.[28] This institution manages sites not listed as cultural heritage sites by UNESCO but hold significant historical value either way.
Similarly, the International Centre for the Study of the Preservation and Restoration of Cultural Property (ICCROM) oversees the preservation of cultural heritage sites of all kinds. As a smaller organization, it takes pride in its ability to respond swiftly and agilely to assistance requests.[29] The ICCROM is an intergovernmental institute that is funded by governmental entities. It has initiated a dedicated program to overlook heritage sites in Arab countries and protect their heritage.[30] The ATHAR program is a collaboration between ASOR, the Government of Sharjah, the Arab League Educational, Cultural, and Scientific Organization (ALECSO), and the Italian Ministry of Foreign Affairs. Their work in this program spans 19 Arab countries and they have collaborated with students and professionals in the field to form publications that will help in the teaching of Postgraduate students in the joint ATHAR center and the University of Sharjah programs.[31]
These instances of initiatives outside UNESCO give us a glimpse of the structure of those NGOs and other organizations and help us understand the scope of unique efforts taken to preserve the remarkable history of the region and the world as a whole. Those organizations seek the same goals as UNESCO and complement their tremendous effort in focusing on the gaps that UNESCO might leave. The process is multifaceted and needs a similar approach that sees all aspects of the preservation efforts, from educating the public to excavating sites and protecting already excavated sites.
Imperatives
While this paper presented several unique cases for Iraq, we can observe that this mission of preserving cultural heritage sites is a challenging one. It is almost impossible to formulate a general set of rules that cover every matter in the preservation process. However, in light of the findings, key suggestions are made to address the identified challenges and enhance future missions.
The first is the deployment of a peace force responsible for protecting the cultural sites with no political bias. UNESCO implements a neutral method in labeling the sites and enforcing the idea of importance to the parties involved if both parties fail to comply and protect those heritage sites. A neutral force should be deployed with the intention of protecting sites and providing a chance for professionals to restore the site while also incentivizing countries to help and cooperate in restoring sites sustainably, knowing that their funding will be protected by the force on the ground. Part of the funding should be put to protect the fund itself, which could lead to its growth, especially for sites in war-torn countries. This will also allow state militaries to participate in a noble cause, further increasing a nation’s soft power and sharing expertise in protecting cultural sites in general.
A second recommendation is the collaboration of NGOs and governmental entities that share one goal to facilitate its accomplishment and create a more effective plan by combining efforts to fund and implement a thorough mission in tackling all aspects of the process.
Thirdly, building a sustainable incentive to restore and conserve the sites through tourism plans and management that involves the community in educating them about the significance of the site and gives locals a chance to manage it, fostering in them a sense of ownership and responsibility.
Finally, governments should enact strict legal protection and enforcement measures to further protect the site with routine monitoring and big penalties for violations.
This paper also aims to pave the way for state actors to formulate their recommendations and implement them to restore and save those valuable sites, contributing to this noble cause of protecting world heritage.
Conclusion
In conclusion, the preservation of cultural heritage sites in war-torn Arab countries like Iraq represents a formidable challenge. The efforts to safeguard these sites as outlined through various international conventions and initiatives demonstrate the complexity and urgency of the task. The Hague and Paris Conventions provide a framework for protection, but their implementation is fraught with difficulties, particularly in regions where conflict and instability prevail. Non-governmental organizations, alongside international bodies like UNESCO, play a crucial role in filling the gaps, offering specialized assistance and swift action where needed. Moreover, the protection of cultural heritage requires more than just international agreements and organizational efforts; it demands a comprehensive and collaborative approach. This includes the deployment of neutral forces to protect sites, stronger legal frameworks at the national level, and sustainable tourism initiatives that engage local communities. By integrating these strategies, it is possible to create a resilient and effective preservation system that can withstand the pressures of war and ensure that future generations inherit the tangible evidence of their history. The success of these efforts will ultimately depend on the collective will and action of the global and local communities, united in the recognition that the loss of any cultural heritage site affects us all.
[1] “The Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict,” 1954.
[2] Ibid.
[3] Ibid.
[4] “Second Protocol to the Hague Convention of 1954 for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict,” 1999.
[5] Ibid.
[6] “Convention Concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage,” 1972.
[7] Ibid.
[8] Ibid.
[9] Dr Monica Palmero Fernández, “Hatra,” RASHID International, May 7, 2020 https://rashid-international.org/hatra/.
[10] Ibid.
[11] Ibid.
[12] “Hatra: IS damage to ancient Iraqi city less than feared,” BBC, May 1, 2017, https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-39770395.
[13] Hayley Skirka, “Iraq welcomes tourists to explore the ancient ruins of Hatra,” The National, September 12, 2022, https://www.thenationalnews.com/travel/destinations/2022/09/12/iraq-welcomes-tourists-to-explore-the-ancient-ruins-of-hatra/.
[14] Ismael Adnan, “Iraq president opens Hatra Festival after two-decade hiatus,” The National, March 2, 2024, https://www.thenationalnews.com/arts-culture/art-design/2024/03/02/hatra-festival-unesco-iraq/.
[15] Hadani Ditmars, “New Dam could drown ancient Iraqi city of Ashur,” The Art Newspaper, June 20,2022, https://www.theartnewspaper.com/2022/06/20/new-dam-could-drown-ancient-iraqi-city-of-ashur.
[16] Ibid.
[17] Ibid.
[18] “Samarra Archaeological City,” Samarra Archaeological City | Silk Roads Programme, https://en.unesco.org/silkroad/silk-road-themes/world-heritage-sites/samarra-archaeological-city
[19] Ibid.
[20] Ibid.
[21] Ibid.
[22] Ibid.
[23] “National report on the implementation of the 1954 Hague Convention and its two (1954 and 1999) Protocols, four-year cycle 2017-2020, questionnaire: Iraq,” 2021, https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000388462.; Unesdoc.unesco.org.
[24] Ibid.
[25] Ibid.
[26] “UNESCO Calls on International Community to Help Revive Iraq’s Cultural Heritage in the Wake of Massive Destruction,” UNESCO, February 24, 2017, https://www.unesco.org/en/articles/unesco-calls-international-community-help-revive-iraqs-cultural-heritage-wake-massive-destruction.
[27] American Society of Overseas Research (ASOR), August 29, 2024, https://www.asor.org/.
[28] Ibid.
[29] “What is ICCROM,” ICCROM, https://www.iccrom.org/about/what-iccrom.
[30] Ibid.
[31] Ibid.
